Modernization & Media Representation in There There by Tommy Orange
Modernization is one of the most prominent yet understated themes throughout the novel There There by Tommy Orange. Tommy Orange, a member of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma, tells the story of Urban Indians, inherently speaking to the modernization of Native Americans. While Native Americans have used elements of modernization to their benefit like any other people, they have severely suffered from effects of society’s so called advancement. One of the main effects of modernization highlighted in There There, is Native American misrepresentation in mainstream media which has ignored the Urban Indian narrative and emphasized historical depictions of Native Americans, resulting in the erasure of Native Americans from the minds of many in the modern realm. Popular culture portrays Native Americans as though they are a stagnant and alien people that did not progress and develop like their counterparts which has advanced their isolation in the modern world. Whether it be in movies, on grocery items, on coins, or as mascots, these images that are fed to the majority of people depict Native Americans as a historical and defeated people. Approximately, 95.5% of Google and 99% of Bing image search results of Native Americans are historical representations (Leavitt et al. 41). For many, this means that Native Americans are ‘extinct.’ However, Native Americans/Urban Indians are here and now, and are fighting for respectable representations of their community. Tommy Orange is one advocate in this fight. His novel There There, acts against the traditional depictions of Native Americans by telling a contemporary Native American story which we seldom hear or see.
In doing so, Orange presents the Urban Indian to his readers early in the prologue of the novel. However, the idea of the Urban Indian has been around even before the official Urban Indians, who Orange defines as the generation of Native Americans born in the city (Orange 11). The Pulitzer winning, House of Dawn by Navarre Scott Momaday, a Kiowa Indian, was published in 1969. There are many traces of House of Dawn in the novel There There. House of Dawn tells the story of a young Native American Abel, who returns to the reservation of Walatowa, New Mexico from World War II and struggles to locate himself in his culture. He goes to Chicago, under the Indian Relocation Program, a policy that Orange also discusses, where he is also unable to connect to the modern world. He then returns to Walatowa where his grandfather’s death results in his participation in the run of the dead, a significant Kiowa tradition. This phenomenon, marks Abel’s reunification with his roots and closes the novel. While Abel’s character depicts the struggle for a sense of belonging that Orange highlights, it is Abel’s best friend Ben that is most representative of the Urban Indian as he settles in the city and embraces modern life. Both characters are reminiscent in Orange’s There There, and it is because of this that we know that the Urban Indian narrative has been accessible for quite some time. However, mainstream media has suppressed modern Native American stories and perpetrated historical imagery, leaving this community in the past.
Unlike House of Dawn, There There presents the Native Americans of the 21st century – a people with their own culture, a people who struggle, and a people fighting for the survival of their own. He does not present the reservation as a form of escape or a way back to tradition, but shows Urban Indians who must find themselves and establish their traditions within modern society. There There presents twelve individuals in short vignettes, each going through some type of struggle whether it be with identity, alcoholism, drug abuse, domestic violence, poverty, etc. All of which are prevalent modern issues, therefore placing Native Americans in the modern sphere. However, he goes further in his story telling just to emphasize Native American’s place in modernization by relentlessly highlighting the technology involved in their lives and how these modern apparatuses affect them. All the characters come together at the Oakland Powwow to celebrate and practice their culture. The Powwow is the only event where Urban Indians can come together in masses because they no longer live on reservations. However, a mass shooting occurs at the powwow, forcing the reader to consider if modernization and culture can co-exist. Even in terms of media representations, we must wonder if modernization has done more bad than good. Native Americans are constantly grappling to hold onto their culture but mainstream media, in a time when media has a universal reach, has failed to depict the true culture and lives of the community. Media has persistently ignored an entire generation of Native Americans, stripping them of their culture in the place that they need to see it most – media.
As she discusses the fight for the recognition of Indian Studies in the sixties, Elizabeth Cook-Lynn states, “Twenty years later, and at its most imperious, the popular imagination which brings us the movies and fiction and poetry of the nineties seems to suggest that we are still back there, back in the pre-sixties never-never land, where the white man's imagination about Indians was valid” (9-10). The most popular Native American representations have consistently showcased Native American in an historical setting in the 18th and 19th century where they are raging beasts in nature or savage nobles. Within our education system, a student’s greatest chance of learning about Native Americans is in the history class. The article “Frozen in Time” compares the percentage of people that identify as Native American in the US census to the percentages of Native American content on primetime television and film:
In the United States, individuals who identify in the census as Native Americans constitute 1.6% of the population, whereas individuals who report being Native American and some other racial‐ethnic group(s) constitute 4.1% of the population. In contrast, content analyses of primetime television and popular films reveal that the inclusion of Native American characters ranges from no representation to 0.4% of characters being Native American. Similarly, less than 1% of children's cartoon characters and 0.09% of video game characters are Native American. Taken together, whereas Native Americans make up a small portion of the population, they are considerably more underrepresented in the media. In fact, they are often invisible in the media. The representational issue, however, is not simply that Native Americans are numerically underrepresented, but that the quality of representations is also constrained. (Leavitt et al. 42) As the article stresses, Native Americans are rarely represented in media and when they are, their representations are distorted. They are stereotyped, commodified, and historicized. In fact, if it was not for the recent Dakota Pipeline Access issue that was rigorously covered by the media, this idea of the historic and extinct Native American may have still been lodged in the minds of Americans. However, we must think about significance of how the Native Americans were depicted in this situation. Once more, they were being stripped of land and homes, they were fighting, and ultimately, they were defeated for all to see on television screens worldwide.
Tommy Orange begins his novel by underlining the drastic effects that continued misrepresentation can have on both Native Americans and the majority population. The Indian head test pattern was broadcasted throughout America for approximately 40 years. Orange explains that, “the Indian’s head was just above the bull’s-eye, like all you’d need to do was nod up in agreement to set sights on the target” (Orange 4) This subtle image displayed in popular culture is hardly questioned or analyzed by the lay-man, however these depictions work to instill the idea of the ‘bad’ and defeated Indian in the minds of Americans. This is how segregation is blatantly maintained among people. Images like these indirectly ingrain in the white majority that they have power over minorities, in this case, Native Americans. Here they see that a target can easily be placed on the Native American’s head and that they, the white majority, inherently have the power to do this. Monica Bulter states that,
Mediated representations of Indigenous peoples have had little to do with Native peoples themselves; instead, they have represented the beliefs and values held by the white, and generally male, population that created and maintained these stereotypes. These ethnic or racial stereotypes maintain social divisions, thereby protecting the dominant society’s economic and political power through popular imagery. (4)
Placing a Native American head and a bull’s-eye right below it positions the Native Americans back in the forest and sets them up to be hunted. Furthermore, like every majority narrative, it sets the minority/Native American up to be defeated. The fact that the Native Americans were always depicted as defeated makes it easy to neglect their presence and think of them as past peoples.
In There There, Tommy Orange assures that the Native American community is seen as present, he states, “We did not come to cities to die. We were not Urban Indians then. This was part of the Indian Relocation act, which was part of the Indian Termination Policy, which was and is exactly what it sounds like. Make them look and act like us. Become us. And so disappear. But it wasn’t like that” (9). Orange explains that many Native Americans moved on their own accord, for their benefit. They didn’t just fade away, they continued to embed their culture in their lifestyle and in the cities they inhabited. However, the majority failed to notice their presence because most Americans are not exposed to Native Americans which amplifies misrepresentations and further increases the idea of Native Americans as past people. Orange states, “We came to know the Oakland skyline better than we did any sacred mountain range, the redwoods in the Oakland hills better than any other deep wild forest” (11). The city of Oakland becomes the backdrop for the rest of novel There There, as Orange tells a modern Native American story, constantly highlighting their presence and participation in modernization against the popular narratives of Native Americans as historic people.
At the start of the story, Tony Loneman, who suffers from Fetal Alcohol Syndrome sees his reflection on the television and states, “It was the first time I saw it. My own face, the way everyone else saw it…I tried but couldn’t make the face that I found there my own again” (Orange 15-16). It is the television that awakens Tony’s insecurities about his face and this is Orange’s subtle way of highlighting the participation of Native American community in technological advancement and the effects that came along with it. The television brings to light Tony’s “drome” which causes him to resent his mother for drinking and negatively think about the way the world sees himself which results in self-hate.
However, Orange did not only highlight the effects of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome in this first chapter when he introduces Tony and his reflection. Here, Orange metaphorically critiques the misrepresentation of the Native American in television and media in general. Both majority and minority groups watch television; Native Americans do see the misrepresentations of themselves that is portrayed in media. Native Americans, “are seen and learn to see themselves through the lens of negative stereotypes or they look to the messages projected about the contemporary world and simply do not see themselves represented”( Leavitt et al. 41). For many of them, they see themselves “the way everyone [sees] it” and in most instances, there is not much they can do about it (Orange 11). When Tony sees his reflection, Orange is telling us that what he sees is the misrepresentation of himself which results in self-hate and helplessness. The reflection of himself does not represent him as a person, just like media fails to represent him as a Native American. Tony states, “Most people don’t have to think about what their face mean the way I do,” and we understand that he is talking about his face being the result of an alcoholic mother (Orange 15). His face meaning different, diseased, and dangerous. However, Orange is permeating a much bigger message about reflection here. When Native Americans see reflections and representations of themselves in media, they see every stereotype broadcasted to the American people. They see the Indian head test. They have to think about what their face means to the majority simply because people and media fail to see who they really are. They are faced with an America that ostracizes, villainizes, and commodifies them. An America that is obsessed with showing their defeat and erasing their presence. They are faced with an America that may willingly look up and aim at their ‘Indian heads’ simply because they were indirectly trained to do so by the representations they have constantly seen.
Similar to Tony, Orvil searches for some traditional sense of belonging when he looks in the mirror, “with his too-small-for-him stolen regalia, [he] is dressed up like an Indian. In hides, ribbons and feathers, boned breastplate, and hunched shoulders, he stands, weak in the knees, a fake, a copy, a boy playing dress-up…He’s waiting for something to appear before him – about him”(Orange 121-122). Orvil desires to feel a sense of community, he wants to know more about his Native American culture, and is relentless in his pursuit of it. His aunt Opal refuses to teach him and his brothers about their culture, she tells them, “You don’t know how much I work…Your phones, the internet, electricity, food…Listen, baby, it makes me happy you want to know, but learning about your culture is a privilege. A privilege we don’t have” (Orange). It is unfortunate that in trying to upkeep their modern life, Opal feels like she has to sacrifice her culture or that the elements of her culture and modernization cannot exist simultaneously in a healthy way.
However, individuals like Orvil who refuse to accept the reality forced onto him by ‘majority modernization’ and media keep the culture alive. Tommy Orange makes a strong statement about mainstream media and the Native American community through the character Orvil: “Orvil knew he wanted to be a dance the first time he saw a dancer on TV. Everyone else had gone to bed. He was flipping through channels when he found him” (Orange 121). Orvil found his dream on television. However, he had to wait till twelve at night when everyone was asleep, which means that the Native Americans was not prioritized on television. Rather, their community representations were commodified and so, highlighted in the month of November when Native Americans would only be thought of in relation to Thanksgiving turkeys. Orvil’s search for a sense belonging was mainly in media which did not serve him well:
And virtually everything Orvil learned about being Indian he’d learned virtually. From watching hours and hours of powwow footage, documentaries on Youtube, by reading all that there was to read on sites like Wikipedia, PowWow.com, and Indian Country Today. Googling stuff like “What does it mean to be a real Indian,” which led him several clicks through some pretty fucked-up, judgmental forums, and finally to an Urbandictionary.com word he’d never heard before: Pretendian.(121)
Even with all this research Orvil feels ‘stupid.’ When he looks in the mirror he “doesn’t look the way he hoped he would” and “he doesn’t know what he expected to find” (Orange 121). While it is good that through the internet, Orvil is able to find Powwow footage and is able to learn more about his culture, we see that for him a lot is still missing. He is hoping to look a certain way, unaware that one can’t ‘look Indian,’ but one just is ‘Indian.’ However, he needs more than a TV and the Internet to know that, but is it too much to ask that the content on these mediums be actually representative? Being an Urban Indian, media is all he has to rely on to learn more about his culture like many people with Native American backgrounds and we see that while they may find useful information, they will also run into a lot of negativity, and in reality, a lot of misrepresentation. Unfortunately, Orvil will not feel like a true Native American until he has the experience of being around other Native American dancers and even this experience he doubts because media has confused his expectations of what it is to be ‘Indian.’ Therefore, Orvil cannot grasp his culture from media alone, and the misrepresentation and limited information provided about his people makes this tasks an even more difficult one.
Although he could have, Tommy Orange does not only paint a negative portrait of the media in There There. In the very first chapter, Tony speaks about books that he reads to Maxine and mentions Native American author, Louise Erdrich. Tony states, “Maxine makes me read her Indian stuff that I don’t always get. I like it, though, because when I do get it, I get it down in that place where it hurts but feels better because you feel it, something you couldn’t feel before reading it, that makes you feel less alone, and like it’s not gonna hurt as much anymore” (Orange 20). Orange speaks to the need for Native Americans to see positive and realistic representations of themselves and their culture in media. Tony does not just find something he can relate to in reading Louise Erdrich but he finds something worth his literacy which forces him to see beyond his insecurities when reading. Furthermore, reading pieces by a Native American helps Tony to learn and understand more about his culture. The fact that there are aspects of the book which he does not understand but comes to understand displays his learning. Now more than ever, Urban Indians just like any other nation of people need to see representations of themselves and their culture in media. Not everyone has a grandmother waiting to pass on their knowledge, especially the Native American community that has experienced mass genocide.
Oxendene is working on the type of Native American representation that needs to be seen in media. Through Oxendene, Orange speaks to the need for a real depiction of Native American life, so much so that he intertwines an actual example of what he believes a good representation would look like into his own representation of the Native American community:
I want to bring something new to the vision of the Native experience as it’s seen on the screen. We haven’t seen the Urban Indian story. What we’ve seen is full of the kind of stereotypes that are the reason no one is interested in the Native story in general, it’s too sad, so sad it can’t even be entertaining but more importantly because of the way it’s been portrayed, it looks pathetic, and we perpetrate that, but no,… (Orange 40)
Dene Oxendene wants to bring to light the Urban Indian, the Native American of today so that he could counter the historic Indian image still being circulated in media. Orange’s use of modern images and tools acts against the historic Indian story that is told by the majority of media. An example of this can be seen in Dene Oxendene’s narrative where the camera plays many roles. It is his main tool for continuing his uncle’s legacy which helps to connect him to his roots and culture. It is the medium he uses to tell a legitimate story of his people and more significantly, the camera gives Dene Oxendene purpose. He wrote the tag “lens” everywhere and never really has any reasoning behind it, it was just something he did. However, Orange was just foreseeing what was to come, which is Dene’s relationship with the camera and lens which he would use to show the true and new stories of his people.
We meet Opal Viola Victoria Bear Shield as a child and we see the reason why the true Native American stories needs to be told. Opal talks about not knowing why she has her name and even with her mothers’ explanation of this being the Indian way of naming, she is still unsure about the whole matter. During her conversation with Rocky, we see that he is angry at his father for bringing him to Alkatras. He states, “it’s all my dad talks about. What they done to us. The U.S government. I don’t know nothing about all that, I wanna go home” (Orange 53). Although he goes to school and watches televison he still does not know why his community is in Alcatraz and why it is important for his community. Opal and Rocky are just two examples of young Urban Indians that need to see legitimate representations of their history and culture in media in order to know, appreciate and pass on their culture to future generations.
Even in this chapter, Orange, with a touch of humor, reiterates the need for proper representation of Native Americans. Here he critiques the white washing of Native American history to fit the narrative of the white majority. Opal’s teddy bear tells her the story of how people were told that Teddy Roosevelt came across an old bear while hunting and refused to kill it. Meanwhile, he killed the bear but now stuffed bears everywhere are named after him. He then tells her,
You gotta know about the history of your people. How you got to be here, that’s all based on what people done to get you here. Us bears, you Indians, we been through a lot. They tried to kill us. But then when you hear them tell it, they make history seem like one big heroic adventure across an empty forest. There were bears and Indians all over the place. Sister, they slit all our throats. (Orange 51) As Calvin Martin, a white, American historian states, “in writing histories of colonization we are proceeding by way of ideological colonization” (9). He explains, “Those individuals who take it upon themselves to write Native American history, which generally translates into the history of Indian and white relations, with few exceptions to do so consciously or unconsciously from an anthropological perspective and commitment of traditional American Indians, and as a result renders them in caricature” (Martin 9). The history of the Native American people is told as if their lives started when outsiders stepped foot on their land. We have heard about Native American history and their culture dominantly through the white man’s perspective which resulted in their misrepresentation and Native American’s own loss of identity as they too are exposed to these narratives. Opal reiterates her mother who tells her, “And so what we could do had everything to do with being able to understand where we came from, what happened to our people, and how to honor them by living right, by telling our stories,” and this is the solution. Native American stories need to be told by Native American but we know that the process is not all that easy. (Orange)Living in a time where information is easily accessible clearly has its cons and pros. Unfortunately, when it pertains to the Native Americans the cons are more prevalent, as technology is used to perpetrate misrepresentations of their community
Edwin Black is an educated internet addict, and even though he has all this access to information he still is unaware of his Native American roots while he lives with his American mother who he resents for not trying to connect him with his dad. He states,
I’d gotten through four years as a Native American studies major. Dissecting tribal histories, looking for signs, something that might resemble me, something that felt familiar. I’d made it through two years of grad school, studying comparative literature with an emphasis on Native American literature. I wrote my thesis on the inevitable influence of blood quantum policies on modern Native identity, and the literature written by mixed-blood Native authors that influenced identity in Native cultures. All without knowing my tribe (72).
Any Native American studying whitewashed histories of their people will feel like something is missing. Orange is again, commenting on the need for Native Americans to tell their own narratives and highlighting the fact that Native Americans histories cannot be adequately told through the colonizer’s lens. The American education system was built to empower the white majority even if that meant building on the backs of other minority races, and so regardless of how much Edwin studies he will never find his roots within biased narratives.
Modernization plays a significant role in Edwin’s story as the internet is the medium that restrains his progress but it also eventually helps him to find purpose. Edwin spends all of his time in his room on the internet and is becoming increasingly overweight. He lives his life online in a game and does not have the determination and drive to better his reality. According to the theory of invisibility, “when a group is underrepresented in the media, members of that group are deprived of messages or strategies for how to be a person” (Fryberg & Townsend). Edwin states, “And as I was growing, getting fatter in real life, the Edwin I had on there [the internet], on there, I made him thinner, and as I did less, he did more” (Orange 63). Edwin is constantly looking online for a way to live a healthy and happy reality instead of learning from his actual experiences. He is overweight and Native American which means that he is a minority and outsider in mainstream media. Therefore, the internet is not the place for him to figure out how to be himself, he needs to live his life away from internet. Here, Orange is able to highlight the negative effects that come with modernization. By doing this, he shows that Native Americans do face similar challenges to other groups of people and it is unfortunate that he has to go to such lengths to convey this.
However, he also is able to shed some positive light on modernization. Edwin finds his father on Facebook and speaks to him for the first time. His father tells him that he will be at the Oakland Powwow and later in the novel Edwin secures a job as part of the Powwow Planning Committee. While Edwin has hope of finding some sense of culture after finally meeting his father, readers are forced to consider if a social media tag is now equivalent to cultural identity for Urban Indians, “I use Native, that’s what other Native people on Facebook use. I have 660 friends. Tons of Native friends in my feed. Most of my friends, though, are people I don’t know, who’d happily friended upon my request” (69). Is this what their community has become through the push and pull of modernization and the fight to erase them from history? They yearn for tradition, which has been taken away from them, to feel a sense of belonging, but most of their practices will never be found modern society. They are now looking for alternatives in modernization and media but media further perpetrates this sense of loss as it seldom shows true representations of Native American culture. Media fails to highlight the Urban Indian reality and the generation has nothing to relate to; this is what Euramerica has done to the Native American. They have worked to make them history and erase them.
However, events like Oakland Powwow prevents the Native American erasure:
We made powwows because we needed a place to be together. Something intertribal, something old, something to make us money, something we could work toward, for our jewelry, our songs, our dances, our drums. We keep powwowing because there aren’t very many places where we can all be together, where we get to see and hear each other. (153 Orange)
Janis Johnson states, “Powwow is a useful resource not only for understanding the emergence, development, meanings, and traditions of contemporary powwow, but also for making visible its numerous antecedents and multiple variations.” Native American’s collective way of life was stolen from them, majority modernization dawned on them and so they adapted. Powwows are now not only Native American technology that enable Urban Indians to experience and meet other Native Americans, but they also act as a tool for recognition. These events enable the Native American community to be seen in their own light, instead of the light shed on them by popular culture. Today, there are both competitive and traditional powwows where old traditions are maintained and new practices are introduced (Diamond 480). Ellis, Lassiter, and Dunham state that powwows, “began as – and remains- a complicated amalgam of sources and practices reflecting both particular and generalized notions of identity(viii). This is the modern expression of Native American culture and identity. From this, we see that modernization did not overpower the lives of Native Americans, they were able to mobilize in modern society and develop tools such as the powwows to continue their traditions.
However, it is at this Powwow that a mass shooting occurs, “The tragedy of it all will be unspeakable, the fact we’ve have been fight for decades to be recognized as a present-tense people, modern and relevant, alive, only to die in the grass wearing feathers”(Orange 141). Orange, once again, forces us to think if culture and modernization cannot exist simultaneously for Native American people. Native Americans have worked to produce a modern expression of their culture, “only to die in the grass wearing feathers” just like they have been imagined and stereotyped by popular culture (Orange 141). We can conclude that because of the death and chaos at the ending of the novel, Orange is saying that Native Americans, their cultures and their traditions simply cannot exist within modern society however, in reality they are surviving. So, we can look at the survivors of the attack and see hope in this narrative and hope for Native Americans. I believe that Orange chose to end the novel this way to emphasize the fact that Native American’s struggle for recognition and representation in modern society is an active phenomenon. His emphasis on modernization is highly critical. In a society where images and messages can be easily disseminated, we find that entire groups of people go unseen even when they constantly fight to be seen.
Orange shows how modernization is used as just another tool for segregation and oppression, and media as a tool to advance the narratives that are beneficial to the majority.
Orange presents the struggle of the Urban Indian, an inherent struggle with modernization which is not new to Native Americans. While one can argue that many groups of people have suffered from effects of modernization, it is clear that Urban Indians still come up short in elements of modernization where other groups of people benefit. Of course, they also benefit from modernization but the intentional misrepresentation of their community in media in the 21st century is inexcusable. It is fair to say that there are accurate representations of Native Americans, however we must consider how popular these representations are when compared to the numerous misrepresentations that are circulated. These popular misrepresentations that convey Native Americans as defeated and historical have become the standard for Native Americans in the minds of the majority. Now, Native Americans are fighting to be seen and respected in every element of modernization, media is only one example. It is unfortunate that Native Americans always find themselves fighting for what is theirs, but history has occurred and they are working to ensure that they are seen and heard now. Enough has been stolen from them and their place in modern history shall not be.
Work Cited
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Cook-Lynn, Elizabeth. “The Radical Conscience in Native American Studies.” Wicazo Sa Review, vol. 7, no. 2, 1991, pp. 9–13. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/1409056.
Clyde Ellis, Luke Eric Lassiter, and Gary H. Dunham, editors. Powwow. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 2005.
Diamond, Beverley. “Ethnomusicology.” Ethnomusicology, vol. 51, no. 3, 2007, pp. 477–486. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20174546.
Fleming, Walter C. “Myths and Stereotypes about Native Americans.” The Phi Delta Kappan, vol. 88, no. 3, 2006, pp. 213–217. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/20442220.
Fryberg, S. A., & Townsend, S. M. “The Psychology of Invisibility in G. Adams, M. Biernat, N. R. Branscombe, C. S. Crandall & L. S. Wrightsman (Eds.), Commemorating Brown: The Social Psychology of Racism and Discrimination.” American Psychological Association, pp. 173 – 193
Johnson, Janis (Jan). "Powwow (review)." Studies in American Indian Literatures, vol. 20 no. 3, 2008, pp. 102-105. Project MUSE, doi:10.1353/ail.0.0027
Leavitt PA, Covarrubias R, Perez YA, Fryberg SA. “Frozen in Time: The Impact of Native American Media Representations on Identity and Self-Understanding.” Journal of Social Issues, 71(1), 2015, pp. 39-53.
Martin, Calvin. The American Indian and the Problem of History. Oxford University Press. 1987. New York
Orange, Tommy. There There. Alfred A. Knopf. 2018. New York.
The Wilson Quarterly “Background Books: The American Indian.” The Wilson Quarterly, vol. 10, no. 1, 1986, pp. 143–145. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/40257880.
English 646, St. John's University
Final Paper, 12/17/2018